The 'dead woman's ditch': River Holford, Somerset

Having assembled at an unspeakably early hour on a Sunday morning, a group of Year 11 Geographers were met by five teachers, two coaches and a minibus at the Habs coach park on 22^nd September 2013. Armed with buckets full of wellington boots, we set off for an overnight field trip to Somerset with the intention of gaining hands on experience in river and coastal field work in preparation for the oncoming iGCSE exams at the end of the year.

We arrived five hours later at the River Holford, in an area known as ‘Dead Woman’s Ditch’ and settled down for a picnic in this Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. The afternoon was spent wading around in the river in small groups measuring different variables, such as width and depth of the river channel, velocity of the water and the size and shape of the sediment over six different sites downstream.

From there, it was a short drive to Nettlecombe Court, our study centre; a beautiful Tudor and Georgian country mansion which lies in a secluded valley at the eastern edge of Exmoor National Park. After our evening meal, we spent a couple of intense hours collating and analysing the data we had collected during the afternoon. 

Monday morning was hectic with everyone rushing around with final packing, making sandwiches and gathering for the obligatory group photograph.  Another short drive brought us to Porlock Bay where we carried out our coastal fieldwork; measuring the gradients of the pebbly beach with increasing distance from the sea and picking up pebbles as we went along, recording sizes and shapes.  We left the small and pretty settlement of Porlock after a quick lunch and headed back to HABS.

Then the real drama started. With about half the return journey complete, one of our coaches broke down on the M5, leaving my peers and I ‘stranded’ on the hard shoulder!   The boys in the second coach were dropped off at the next service station so that we could be rescued from the motorway and brought back safely. In the end, we all arrived back unscathed, albeit at very different times, and we all agreed that the trip was enjoyable, very well organised, and of course memorable too. Many thanks to Mr Bown, Mrs Lemoine, Mr Taberner, Mrs Ezekiel, Mr Waddington and the instructors at Nettlecombe for a thoroughly informative and enjoyable time.

Shamil Shah, Year 11

Monaco: Where size matters

Monaco is a sovereign city-state, located in Western Europe. France borders it on 3 sides and the Mediterranean Sea on the other. It has a very small area of only just over 2km². The state is best known for having very low taxes and a glamorous royal family.

Monaco is the second most densely populated place in the world; this has led to the state coming to the extreme solution of extending into the sea. It has turned to this rather unusual way of expansion, as there are few other options for the tiny state. As it is surrounded entirely by France, the solution to this space problem does not lie on land. Currently, Monaco is so densely populated that there is no way of adding more buildings to the existing space.

In the past, Monaco has successfully reclaimed land from the sea. This was done in the 1970’s when the district of Fontvielle was built entirely on reclaimed land, it added to Monaco’s land area by 20%. This was controversial at the time as the coastline of Monaco is rich with wildlife, which was disturbed by this development.

Monaco now intends to extend into the sea even further which is likely to cause more controversy.  The new area will be completed by 2024 and is a very large-scale project for Monaco. The total area reclaimed will be the size of 6 hectares. The project will cost £842 million. The project was initially attempted in 2008 but the economic conditions at the time meant that it had to be abandoned.

Although Monaco has agreed to strictly follow environmental regulations, there are still doubts about the situation. By building reclaiming a large area from the sea, the habitats of many forms of wildlife will be destroyed.  The Mediterranean Sea is home to many varied species of wildlife ranging from crustaceans to jellyfish. Although this is considered to be a major problem, the economic benefits outweigh the environmental loss.

The new development will have some exciting elements. These include an underwater car park.  Many more marina docking places will also be added. These are used by many of Monaco’s wealthy residents and are a major tourist attraction.

If this project is successful, it could become as famous as Dubai’s palm islands. Other land reclamation projects include a sixth of the Netherlands, Tokyo Bay in Japan and reclaimed swampland in Dunedin, New Zealand. Just imagine if a significant amount of land was added to Britain, how would you use the space?

The top 5 places to visit in..North America!

1.  New York has a population of 8.837 million, of which 1.6 million are concentrated in Manhattan. As a social, cultural and economic hub of the world, Manhattan is a place that encompasses so much. Although there are sights to see including the M & Ms store and the Toys ‘R’ Us in Times Square, what is really incredible is seeing how a city that contains so much diversity and contrasting types of people has developed to be such a global landmark, and a benchmark for the rest of the world to follow.

2.  British Columbia is the westernmost province in Canada. Home to not only Vancouver, which is one of Canada’s most economically prosperous cities, but also the famous world class Whistler-Blackomb ski resort. Also home to the 2010 winter Olympics, British Columbia boasts fantastic opportunities for human geographers, physical geographers and thrill seekers alike. 

3.   San Francisco is an all round intriguing place built in the bay area. It’s culturally very liberal, boasts a unique mix of architecture with a mix of Victorian and modern structures, all built in an area with varying topography. The bustling fish markets are not just enjoyable, but also a way to see some of the economic aspects of the city. That’s without even venturing outside of the city. Areas such as Marin County are filled with mountains that would excite even the brashest cyclist. Did you know, that mountain biking actually started near San Francisco, at Mount Tamalpais. 

4.   Nevada represents the ultimate contrast of human achievement against nature’s overriding force. Las  Vegas,  the original home of gambling and fun, lavish spending and crazy nights. Wonder outside of  the bright lights, and you’re reminded that man can’t control everything. Nevada boasts the  undeniably impressive Grand Canyon, which is 277 miles long, and up to 18 miles wide, as well as  the Colorado River that is the major source of water for Mexico as well as the whole of the South  West United States. That’s without mentioning the Hoover Dam, just another of Nevada’s  incredible sites, and definitely a place to visit.

5.   Yosemite National Park: North America is a place of large natural beauty, and so ‘naturally’ there  are a lot of National Parks, but one example that is definitely worth going to is Yosemite. Yosemite  has a lot of interesting sites and beautiful scenery, including ‘El Capitan’, a prominent granite cliff that  looms over Yosemite Valley, and the Lyell Glacier, which is the largest glacier in Yosemite National  Park and is one of the few remaining in the Sierra Nevada today. It’s impossible to fit all the beauty  of Yosemite into a paragraph , but it is certainly one of the key spots in North America. 

Jake Sacks

Why are Britons migrating to....France?

It seems bizarre that righteous British people would willingly belittle themselves to the same level as the French. Historically we've hated each other, and the global French stereotype still exists. Yet, somehow, perhaps worryingly, some 250,000 Britons are said to be living in France. Let’s investigate some of the pull factors that lure Brits, “les sujets de sa gracieuse majesté” as French tabloids like to brand them, from our green and pleasant land.

The first factor that immediately comes to mind is climate. Britain has lots of rain. Although in northern parts of France the climate is, too, temperate, and indeed in western parts you might even get more rain than Britain, in the south you get Mediterranean sunshine, and central parts are generally milder. Even though winter is quite cold, it’s still dry. On average, London gets 110 rainy days a year; Marseille only gets 53. Moving to a place that’s half as rainy and twice as sunny as Britain can’t be too bad.

This favourable climate also attracts tourists to France. Indeed, when questioned, many British expats cited previous tourist experiences in France as the main motive for migrating permanently. Because of the tourism, some Britons migrate to France for entrepreneurial reasons, to provide British-friendly tourist services (lucrative business considering that France is the world’s most popular holiday destination, and is visited by a third of Britain’s population each year). Ski resorts are an evident example. Business, however, is not limited simply to profiting from sightseers. Many make a living by selling authentic British products or promoting authentic British culture in France. Whether selling pots of marmite or opening up a fish and chip shop, the French are surprisingly interested in the way the British live their lives.

Culture also plays a part. Most emigrants end up in rural areas, such as the Lot, in the Midi-Pyrenees region. Existence here is tranquil, sharply contrasting with the busy urban lifestyles you might associate with British cities. You are legally entitled 8 more days of holiday each year. Life is so much more traditional; no supermarkets monopolising food supply, rarely any instances of traffic congestion, and no fear of being run over by a lorry driver if you decide to go cycling. Generally, the scenery isn’t too bad either. There are barely any mountain ranges or sets of rolling hills in Britain, and where they do exist they are infested with tourists. Contrarily, France has plenty of untouched picturesque landscape to offer. This is attractive, especially to the elderly searching for a place to retire.

Living costs in France are much lower than in Britain. The lower property prices (barely anybody rents or has a mortgage), cheaper bills and lower prices of supermarket products, coupled with the devaluation of savings and pensions as a result of depreciation in the value of the pound since 2008, has incentivised emigration. The lack of an NHS isn't too much of a problem; there is guaranteed health insurance for early retirees, and government health spending as a proportion of GDP is the highest in Western Europe (11%). This is perhaps an alternative explanation as to why the demographic of British migrants is dominated by the elderly.

The language barrier isn't as considerable a problem as one might expect. Not only are most frenchmen (as most people on Earth are nowadays) competent with English, but the similarities of the languages mean french is surprisingly easy to pick up. Moreover, there often isn't even a need to be able to understand or speak French; the internet can come surprisingly handy. Even so, being surrounded by french people isn't a disaster; one Briton, when asked, said the main reason he moved his family to France was so his children could be fluent in two different languages from an early age.

One surprising push factor is personal circumstances. Research by the University of York shows that a large number of Brits emigrated to “start a new life” elsewhere. Removing themselves from Britain and immersing themselves in a totally foreign culture, that isn't too foreign to be inconvenient, has been a reason cited by many British expats in France.

Yet the most obvious factor must be location. Whether travelling by ferry, train or Ryanair. France is now as accessible as most of Britain, and the competitiveness of the international transport market means fares are now affordable to all. Yes, that’s right: Ryanair is actually beneficial! Convenience of travel has more benefits than the obvious one; relatives wishing to visit can come relatively easily, and transport costs for businesses aren’t too high (being a part of the European Union also helps in this regard).

All this might be making you think how miserable Britain is and how wonderful France is, so perhaps it’s worth ending on a happier note. There are more British emigrants in France than there are french immigrants in Britain. Indeed, there are more frenchmen in London alone than the there are Brits in the whole of France. France may have its pull factors, but Britain (thankfully) remains on top. Rule Britannia!

Qatar 2022 World Cup: Can you take the heat?

A couple of years ago, FIFA, the governing body that rules football announced their decision to give the 2022 Football World Cup to the Middle-Eastern state of Qatar. At the time, this was greeted with celebration and delight, with Qatar the first Arab nation to host the major event. However, since then, scientists and geographers around the world have become increasingly concerned about the climate of the country, especially during the summer months, when the World Cup is usually played.

The country is predominantly made up of deserts, with almost all of the country some sort of desert, which goes a long way to emphasise the heat and climate of the country. The country has a desert climate.

Temperatures in Doha, the capital of Qatar, are over 40°C, with record temperatures in the region hitting 53°C. These extremely high temperatures are largely due to the desert climate in the country and the surrounding areas. During the period that the World Cup is usually played, June to August, Qatar’s average temperature exceeds 50°C, with them going no lower than 30°C, clearly too hot to be able to watch 90 minutes of football, let alone play it.

Qatar has long summers, May to September, characterized by the intense heat mentioned and alternating dryness and humidity through the season. The sun shines brightly on almost all days, as Qatar is almost on the Equator, and is continually bathed in intense sunlight. The Sun hits the Earth at right angles, at 90° at the Equator. It is hotter there as the heat is stronger because it has less distance to travel before it heats an area, as Qatar is almost at a 90° angle from the Sun.

At 30° both north and south of the Equator, there are no clouds. Here, there is nothing obstructing the Sun’s rays, and therefore they hit and heat the ground without interruption, and at full heat and strength. The absence of clouds is due to the high air pressure.

The air pressure explains for both the hot weather and lack of clouds. Cold air sinks and upon reaching the ground surface, remains there. This results in the area above the ground having a higher air pressure due to a larger proportion of cooler air present. Over time, the ground heats the air causing it to rise in the form of convection currents. It then cools and condenses into clouds causing rain during the night. By the next morning, precipitation is minimal and the cycle restarts.

Therefore, as suggested, the heat is most intense in Qatar during the period of year in which the World Cup is usually held. However the majority of football fans are opposed to a winter World Cup in Qatar. Whilst ideas for geo-engineering technology (creating rain and clouds, similar to that used in the Beijing Olympics) have been suggested; these are neither affordable, efficient nor safe.

For now, FIFA have yet to make a decision. However, due to the heat in Qatar, playing a World Cup in the Arabic summer has almost been ruled out. However, management of this unique issue must be carefully assessed to ensure that the needs of the football fans, the players and the sponsors are all met.

Primark is evil…do you buy it?

Primark as I’m sure you are all aware is surrounded in controversy. We all know about the claims that children are worked to death in sweatshops so we can get a t-shirt for the same price as a pint of milk – but how bad is it really?

Primark is often singled out as the big consumerist bully, but there are definitely other brands to blame. Nike for example sells millions of shoes and pieces of clothing each year, but does not produce any of these products. Instead, the company contracts with manufacturing facilities located throughout the world. Nearly 800,000 people work in these factories, located primarily in Asia. Since the 1990's, the company has been criticised for the working conditions and low wages at these factories, with many critics accusing the company of profiting from sweatshop labour.

So it seems cheaper brands must make a compromise over more affordable products and cheap labour, however you may be surprised to know that more expensive brands are also to blame. Have you ever looked longingly in a shop window of designer fashion houses such as Burberry? However the Burberry factory in South Wales is set to close in the next few months following the decision to export production to China, where costs are significantly lower as a result of workers being paid extremely low wages.

The International Labor Rights Forum notes that numerous companies and leading brands rely on sweatshop labour. Is there a real alternative? Not really. Many shops such as M&S have a fair-trade section but fashion houses and popular high street brands still use cheap labour. So Primark, although you may be seen as an immoral, dirty business, the blame doesn’t lie solely on you. Personally I will not be shopping at Oxford Street’s Primark this Christmas. This is not due to its use of cheap labour but mainly just to avoid the massive queues and crowds!

Alberta, Canada: Recovering from a flooding disaster

So many disasters occur across the world that often we are unaware of their occurrence. However thousands of people may be affected and it is often hard to understand the extent of the damage with no personal connection to the area. This summer there was severe flooding in the Province of Alberta in Canada where I visited on holiday. Alberta is an area located in the beautiful Canadian Rockies, home to many National Parks. These parks are visited by 8.5 million people each year to witness their spectacular beauty and take part in activities such as skiing, hiking and canoeing along the rivers and lakes. I visited Cougar Creek in the old mining town of Canmore in early July. I saw so much flooding, that I was able to compare flood stories to the damage that I saw.

The flooding occurred as a result of extremely heavy and constant rainfall accompanied by the ice melt flowing down from the mountains. Rivers are also constantly trying to take the easiest path to their base level (lowest level determined by the sea). In a time of extreme rainfall like that experienced in Canmore, debris that is being picked up and transported by the river such as trees, begins to build up. This can gradually create a natural structure similar to a dam, building up the land to a steeper height and blocking the natural flow of the river. This causes the river to flow at a lower base level. In Canmore this occurred in many places which meant the small tributaries leading to Cougar Creek began to flow through housing such as those in Eagle Heights. Another reason that this river causes so much potential for danger is that Cougar Creek is located in an alluvial fan (figure 1). This means the river has the capability to change direction suddenly (avulse) which could mean it would flow through housing instead of down its usual route.

When Cougar Creek spilled its banks, it battered the residential areas bordering them for 48 hours; tearing out sewer lines, water mains and a gas line, carrying tonnes of debris to the Trans-Canada Highway it flows beneath. A health advisory was issued for residents of Alberta, warning them to boil all water before using it. Furthermore flooding in Canmore General Hospital meant it was restricted. Due to the flow of the Creek across the highway, Canmore was cut off from the rest of Alberta for 2 days. 75 military personnel assisted local councils to clean up the town.

Teams worked to return the flowing waters to their normal channel and create temporary roads to allow residents access to the main town centre. 45 homes have been left uninhabitable other damage costs are well into the tens-of-millions of dollars. Homes were not covered by insurance so many were left homeless.

With the huge risk of the river avulsing (switching the path of its natural flow), it is interesting to see what the government decides to do to prevent such damage occurring again. Some argue that homes should never have been built on an area that is naturally prone to such disasters (especially in an area of dense forest higher up that will bring down even more debris). There is a river in the centre of the town and the government believed that its floodplain would pose more of a threat than the alluvial fan. Others say that returning the creek to its normal flow would not reduce flooding. Despite this, as figure 2 shows, (aerial view of the area), there are few other options. We will simply have to hope that this kind of disaster does not occur again.  

An insight into economic geography

Economic Geography is concerned with the distribution of commodities. In recent decades, this branch of geography has received criticism from geographers such as Peter Dickens for being too pluralist in nature and thus ineffective at resolving specific concerns. It has been argued that geography as a discipline struggles to find its ‘scholarly niche’, and that there appears to be a trade-off between pluralism and engagement in issues. However, the reverse side of the argument, which has engaged the concept of behavioural economic geography, is that geography serves as a provider of context; this is apparent, arguably, in economic geography, particularly with the example of pensions in the UK. In this article, I shall discuss whether economic geography’s pluralist nature is a good thing or not, and whether geography holds as a discipline in its own right.

When Peter Dickens wrote the well-known book “Global Shift”, discussing globalization, he deliberately omitted from the cover the word “geography”. This was not unintentional, and in fact Dickens admitted to the fact that “most people would not have taken such a book written by a ‘mere geographer’ very seriously”. Why is this, and is there any point in continuing my writing now that you know I, too, am a ‘mere geographer’? The argument put forward by many economic geographers is that economic geography’s increasing use of theoretical and methodological approaches is contributing to a lack of engagement with the ‘real world’. An example of this is the debate about concepts of globalization. Dickens declares that the development of a ‘global community’ has contributed to a more diverse discussion, but less agreement. We are unable to reach a topical core that unites us as this so-called ‘global community’, and economic geography’s non-centered perception of the world is not helping in this. There was, for example, a distinct lack of consensus in economic geographers’ reactions to the Financial Crisis. A criticism cited of geography as a discipline is the inevitable time-lag of its presentation of findings. Geographers’ commitments to both collect primary data and assess a wide range of theoretical concepts leads to delays – many papers, for example, take between twelve and twenty four months to be published. A paper that first explored the recession’s impact on DC pension funds began in 2008, but was not published until 2011! It is therefore argued that the geographical process of investigation is flawed, both in its method and its aims, as delays in submission and attempts to contextualize even freak exogenous events lead to a superficial understanding.

However, others argue, including Tversky and Kahneman, that economic geography and geography as whole has an ability to use its specific case studies to develop a broader understanding, without losing sight of its diffuse aims. For example, Latin America was less affected than Europe and the US by the Financial Crisis. Why was this? The reason was its ability to rely on non-centered commodity maritime shipping networks, thus mitigating against any domestic falls in demand. This concept, arguably, can only be appreciated by a discipline that both contextualizes and explores the reasons behind such spatial differentiation. Institutions today are no longer isolated, but exist as widely dispersed nodes within a wider network. Therefore, Dicken’s point about globalization leading to confusion may be true initially, but it is undeniably a useful tool for appreciating ideas of this nature. Furthermore, economic geography’s concern with space and place quickly widens the framework for analysis, for example with pension decisions in the UK. Behavioral economic geography seeks to appreciate social and spatial context in savings decision-making, and moves beyond the assumption that each agent is rational and seeks utility maximization all the time (Rational Choice Theory). Family influences, imitation and even morality can alter the decisions of those contributing to pensions, away from that which may be more rational. Geography in general appreciates how socially and culturally agents are embedded, and this allows a deeper analysis of economic decision-making. Contextual factors such as these can not easily be analyzed quantitatively, and thus geography’s appreciation of it may move it beyond those other disciplines which rely on empirical testing for thesis formulation.

In conclusion, economic geography’s appreciation of a need to widen analysis on economic discourse is a good thing. This is because it moves our understanding beyond economic assumptions of rationality, and provides social and cultural context.

Powerful, Mexican drug lords govern the black market

For many of us, drug lords are stereotypically ruthless people who thrive on kidnap, murder and extortion; which leads us to believe that they possess no real sense of decorum. However, this is an image that we have perceived to be fictional – something that only exists in the world of film. So it is surreal to think that this life truly exists right now and centred in the heart of the USA is an area ideal for running this illegal drug trade. With the Gulf of Mexico being at the foot of North America, it is in a prime position for trading across the two American continents as well as the rest of the world. In 2007, Mexico controlled 90% of the cocaine entering the United States. Sadly, this figure continues to rise year on year with the industries current worth estimated $13bn for this year.

The biggest cartel is known as ‘Los Zetas’. It first originated when 31 ex-soldiers became an army loyal to drug trafficking instead of America and this has rapidly expanded over the years to what seems like an uncontrollable network of hundreds of people. It is currently difficult to know the exact number of people in the cartel, but we do know that there are 1.4 million gang members in the Unites States alone. This highlights the fact that anyone could be part of a drug cartel – even those who have fought for their country. This in itself makes many feel uneasy and the fact that these gangs grow everyday, makes us rethink whether the world today really is a better place than it was centuries ago. On 1^st September 2012, in the coastal Mexican city of Acapulco, teachers went out on strike - not over wages, working conditions or pensions, but because of drug cartels fighting for power. This proves that the national drug war is such a prominent issue, that it has affected even the most regular of people just trying to make an honest living or get a good education.

Why is the situation not improving?

Some Mexican communities call drug traffickers ‘los valientes’ (spanish for the brave). This positive depiction of violent drug lords depicts the work of the cartels as admirable – something that acts as a driving force for the growth of the drug trade. Not only this, but advances in technology make it much easier to regulate the global drug industry and the fact that the Zetas have their own encrypted radio network adds to the issue further. The black market is also on an unimaginably large scale and is deeply rooted in Mexican Society. Ismael 'el Mayo' Zambada one of the most wanted traffickers has also supported this, saying, “millions of people are wrapped up in the narco problem. How can they be dominated? For all the bosses jailed, dead, or extradited, their replacements are already there”. Worryingly enough, there is truth to his words and this poses yet another problem that is not being managed efficiently.

Clearly, crime in Mexico (primarily the drug trade) is a key issue and we can only hope that authorities there will take charge and stop the drug war that has already produced 60,000 to 100,000 deaths.

How to use lightning to charge your smartphone

An average lightning bolt produces between 1,000 and 5,000MJ of energy, which is enough to power a car for about 180 to 910m and therefore definitely enough to charge a smartphone.

At the University of Southampton, scientists simulated such a scenario using a Nokia phone. They reproduced lightning by they running 200,000V through a transformer, resulting in the Nokia phone being charged within seconds. This investigation led the company to research the possibilities of creating wireless charging in the near future.

“The discovery proves that the device can be charged with a current that passes through the air, and is a huge step towards understanding a natural power like lightning and harnessing its energy.” – Neil Palmer

Japan: The dangers of ditching the dating game

Japans population is rapidly declining and ageing with forecasts predicting a loss of a third of the population by 2060. Japan’s population fell by a record 0.22 percent to 127.515 million as of 1^st October 2012, while people aged 65 or older surpassed the 30 million mark for the first time (Internal Affairs and Communications Ministry). The number of people aged 14 and younger fell to a record low of 13 percent.

In a country in which you are more likely to go on a date with an electronic girlfriend and men really do suffer from Peter Pan Syndrome (unwilling to commit and fear of growing up) it is unsurprising that about 37% of the population never marry, and the average age of marriage has increased from 25 to 33 years in the last five years.

In most western cultures lack of marriage would not impact the total number of births with 51% of babies in the UK being born out of wedlock in 2010. However, Japans strong traditional social values mean that less than 2% of babies are born out of wedlock. As a result, lack of marriage strongly correlates to a lack of births (or population increase).

A total fertility rate of 2.1 would keep the population stable, assuming no migration. Japan hit this level in 1960, but has fallen persistently below this since 1975. The total fertility rate reached a low of 1.26 in 2005. One of the main reasons for this decline is the changing role of women in society. In the post-1945 years the participation of women in the work force increased from 43% in 1970 to 75% in 2005. These behavioral shifts mean that women are having fewer babies and are having children at later age.

There is also clear indication of increased distancing between men and women. One of the main culprits for causing this trend is Japans Otaku culture - a world of nerds and geeks obsessed with computer games and Manga cartoons – which has led to many Japanese men withdrawing from the whole dating game. Whole sectors of mild porn and dating Sims have been developed to exploit this obsession. The most popular game being Nintendo DS’s love plus released only in Japan on September 3^rd 2009, with total revenue estimated at $225 million for game sales and associated products.

Japan is a very developed country, whose population is a true reflection of a constrictive population pyramid (stage 4) where population is generally older on average, as the country has long life expectancy, a low death rate and also a low birth rate. The population trends in the country add to a debt problem (quadrillion yen – 140% GDP) worse than that of Greece and an uncertain future for a country that still is the third largest economy in the world. There is fear for how the future generation will cope with the increased disproportion in the dependency ratio. 

However the extent to which the ageing population and decreasing youth population will impact the society is skewed as it does not account for increase in health of the overall population. Japanese woman since 1982 have had the highest life expectancy out of 228 countries according to the World Bank. Women are expected to live till 86 and men till 79, with women accounting for 87% of Japans 32,000 centenarians (expected to increase to 320,000 by 2030). However higher life expectancy does not mean longer periods of frailty and sickness as people are reaching older age in better condition than before. This has led to a decrease in the ratio of workers to non-workers, with the majority working over a decade past the traditional retirement age of 65. A workforce decline of 2.5% since 1999, and people retiring later has resulted in the bleak job prospects for the new generation. There is no longer the idea of a guaranteed ‘job for life’ which back in 1979 made Japan the envy of neighboring countries. This lack of security has also been a main factor accounting for the decline in marriage.

In conclusion the future of Japan rests on the need for a series of social and cultural changes in order to prevent their now prosperous mega cities becoming ghost towns, with only structural remnants indicating the population that once occupied them.

Arctic's Hudson Bay at tipping point

Since the mid 1990s, Hudson Bay is one of the Arctic’s last refugia (an area in which organisms can survive despite periods of harsh weather conditions) having undergone dramatic climate-driven changes and has reached an ecological tipping point. This is worrying, as until recently, the icy lowlands around Hudson Bay have remained resistant to global warming. This is due to the antecedent high temperatures in the Arctic.

A Paleolimnologist at Queen’s University stated that there were always a few refugia that seemed relatively resistant to change including the area around Hudson Bay. This is because Hudson Bay is the second largest inland sea in the world, and it is blocked with ice that helped keep the area cool. Inevitably, Hudson Bay was going to pass a tipping point. Recently, due to the increase in temperatures, the ice has started to melt. Since the 1990s, Hudson Bay has warmed about 3^oC.

Sediment cores and the ancient algae they contain show that the Hudson Bay region’s lakes experienced very little change over the centuries. This has now changed after the mid-1990s, the aquatic biota in the sediment record show striking shifts in ecosystems that are very similar to those seen elsewhere across the Arctic in regions where air temperatures warmed and time periods of ice-free water increased.

Physical changes around Hudson Bay could resemble those seen earlier in the high Arctic including less lake ice, shallower lakes and dried up ponds, along with the loss of productive wet peat lands. This climate change has had a large negative impact.